The Way of Chinese Painting, Its Ideas and Techniques; 

by Mai-Mai Sze, Vintage Books, 1959, ISBN 10: 0394701666; ISBN-13: 978-0394701660

(WCP, p. xv) “To take a close look, however, at this Tao of painting, it is necessary to examine separately the two aspects, which are of course inseparable, ‘accord’ in painter as well as picture being the result of a harmonious, complementary action of inner and outer resources.”

(WCP, p.6) “The second feature is the traditional view that painting is not a profession but an extension of the art of living, for the practice of the Tao of painting is part of the traditional Tao of conduct and thought, of living in harmony with the laws of Tao.”

(WCP, p. 9) “There is evidence that the combination of Shou (ch. Head) and Ch’o (ch. Foot) symbolized the idea of wholeness, that is spiritual growth. One aspect of the character Tao thus represents an Inner way, an integration of character with deep and complex psychological connotations (as to soul, mind, and emotions).”

(WCP, p. 12) “…the concept of Tao has usually been identified as a Taoist concept. But it is a concept – and a term – at the heart of all Chinese thought.”

(WCP, p. 13) “To Confucius (551-479 BC), Mencius (c. 372-289 BC), and the Confucian schools, Tao was primarily an ethical ideal and standard, the Tao of man, and its goal was ‘sageliness within and kingliness without.’ In the Lun Yu (Analects), Tao is ‘the Way of the Ancients,’ ‘the way of Former Kings.’”

(WCP, p. 14) “The main concern of Confucius…was this Tao of man; he would not discuss the Tao of heaven, although he mentioned it with respect and characteristic caution.”

(WCP, p. 15) “Mencius referred to Tao as the ‘king way’ and ‘the way of morality’; to him Tao was the conscience. Man’s nature was ‘what Heaven has given us.’ And ‘he who has completely developed his mind knows his nature; knowing his nature, he knows Heaven.’ ‘If a man knows Heaven, he is not only a citizen of society but also a citizen of the universe.’ He is a Great Man, the truly adult and whole man. The ideal of ‘a Great Man’ is described by Mencius in another part of his work; ‘To dwell in the wide house of the world of man, to stand in the correct position in it, and to follow the Tao of it; having obtained one’s ambition, to practice one’s principles for the good of the people; when that ambition is disappointed, to practice them alone; when riches and honor cannot make one swerve, and power and force cannot make one bend; these are the characteristics of the Great Man.’”

(WCP, p.18) “Thus Tao has been designated also as the Great Void, which contains everything. Such words as Hsu and K’ung, both meaning ‘emptiness’, assumed great importance in Taoist works. Space of any sort was regarded as filled with meaning since it was filled with Tao, in fact was Tao, an idea that inevitably had a profound influence on painting.”

(WCP, p. 19) “The purpose of Taoist meditation, what they call ‘stilling the heart’, is to empty it of all distracting thought and emotion; the ‘emptiness’ opens the way to a state of quiescence and receptivity, the ideal state in which to reflect the Tao.”

(WCP, p.23) “Having much in common with Taoism, the teachings of Zen masters were easy to accept and assimilate. Both were ‘wordless doctrines’ in their emphasis on enlightenment through intuition and the spirit. Zen was as strongly opposed to dependence on classic Buddhist scriptures as the Taoists were to the literary bent of the Confucianists.”

(WCP, p. 24) “Though there was intermittent dispute between the two groups, many of their concepts actually were similar and reinforced each other, often merging so that they were indistinguishable.”

(WCP, p. 25) “It is important to note the distinction between this Taoist religion (Tao Chiao) and Taoist philosophy (Tao Chia). And it is also of importance that, despite its mystical elements, Taoist thought is eminently practical.”

(WCP, p. 29) “Certain passages in the I Ching are of importance in explaining the significance of the five…the sum of the odd numbers (1+3+5+7+9=25) plus the sum of the even (2+4+6+8+10=30) total fifty-five, which is the number of Heaven and Earth together. Thus the Five of Heaven and the Five of Earth are reached in two different ways. The results are fittingly confirmed by the fact that sum of the two Fives (and the sum of the two fives of fifty-five) is ten, the number regarded as complete and therefore perfect because it contains all the single and primary numbers and also is the sum of the four root numbers; 1+2+3+4.”

(WCP, p. 33) “To the Neo-Confucianists, li (principle) was only slightly less important than Tao. In reading their dialectics about li, one gains the impression that li was in fact another term for Tao, and that all their phrases describing the li … were virtually exercises of he mind in search of Tao.”

(WCP, p. 34) “The Taoist and Buddhist practice of meditation following exercises in controlling and regulating the breath – the human ch’i drawing on the Ch’i of the universe – was one of the means they believed helpful in emptying the heart of distractions, selfishness, and ignorance in order to be able to reflect clearly the Tao.”

(WCP, p. 40) “…for in painting a scene, when one succeeds in conveying the ch’i of each form, the result is an expression of the Ch’i that pervades the universe, and to do this, the painter has to transcend the limitations of the eye and delve into the secrets of nature.”

(WCP, p. 42) “The Yin and the Yang are discussed in the early Taoist texts, the Lieh Tsu and Huai Nan Tzu, where they are made a basic element of Taoist thought, so that they appear to be Taoist concepts…”

(WCP, p. 42) “On the whole, however, the Confucianists did not give the theory (Yin Yang) much attention until the Neo-Confucianists, having recovered the idea from Taoism, discussed it in their commentaries of the I Ching.”

(WCP, p. 43) “Yang and Yin stand for the upper and lower worlds, the spiritual and the material, the intangible and the tangible.”

(WCP, p. 47-48) “Above all, a sense of movement representing the vitality of Tao can be made to permeate a painting when the painter himself possesses ch’i, the creative force of Heaven in the individual. Being of the spirit, ch’i is elusive and difficult to describe, as also Tao. Hence it was the subject of constant discussion among Chinese painters.”

(WCP, p. 49) “The attitude that painting was a magic art never entirely disappeared; traces may be seen for instance, in the later classification of the masters, when the categories of excellence were termed shen (ch. the divine), miao (ch. the profound or mysterious), and neng (ch. the accomplished).”

(WCP, p. 55) “…ch’i and powerful brushstrokes naturally went together, representing the balance between the painter’s inner resources and their outer demonstration, the fusion of the subjective and the objective.”

(WCP, p. 55) “The magnificent rendering of space in Chinese paintings, particularly landscapes, where often mountains and other features were deliberately placed and drawn so as to emphasize the space, was a direct result of Taoist ideas about the Great Void.”

(WCP, p. 55) “Ching Hao’s Six Essentials contained the principle of landscape paintings in six characters: first, ch’i followed by yun (Ch. rhythm), ssu (ch. thought), ching (ch. seasonal aspect), pi (ch. brush), and mo (ch. ink).”

(WCP, p. 56) “Ching Hao’s list is of special interest for a shift of emphasis and the expression of each principle by a single term. Particularly important was the modification of the first principle from Ch’i (Ki, jap. ed.), the Spirit of Heaven, to ch’i (Shin, jap. ed.), the spirit in man, a recognition of the personal element not found in Hsieh Ho’s First Canon.”

(WCP, p. 56) “…the T’u Hua Chien Wen Chih, by Kuo Jo-hsu, published at the end of the XI century, was one of the most influential both then and later. In quoting the First Canon, Kuo used yun (rhythm). Subsequently, either yun (rhythm) or yun (to revolve) was used in citing the First Canon.”

(WCP, p. 57) “…yun (ch. to revolve) connotes, from more of a Taoist standpoint, the movement of Tao manifest in Ch’i; yun (ch. rhythm, harmony), though in a sense also Taoist, represents a Confucian ideal closely related to the Confucian li (ch. rituals) and ho (ch. harmony), the term that was used of sound and form, including rhythm, connotes a constructive and creative sense of the harmony of the whole; but in application, owing to its emphasis on order and correctness, it had the power to stifle the most desired quality, tzu jan (ch. spontaneity).”

(WCP, p. 58) “the aim of painting remained the harmony of Heaven and Earth expressed through the harmony of the parts and the whole of the picture. As Kuo Jo-hsu said: ‘In a picture, the spiritual harmony originates in the exercise of the mind (ch. hsin); its full exposition comes from the use of the brush.’”

(WCP, p. 59) “In the First Canon, sheng tung (ch. life-movement) is a direct result of the Ch’i yun (ch. circulation of the Ch’i), whether in its characteristic revolving movement or as an all-encompassing order and harmony. The key phrase, therefore, is Ch’i yun; this concept of the Ch’i in action governs all the principles and every work of art, down to each brushstroke. Ch’i yun, literally describing the circulation of the Ch’i, has often been translated ’Rhythmic vitality’ to render it as ‘Rhythmic Vitality’ is to omit the central point and to put the emphasis in the wrong place, for rhythm is only one aspect of the total action of the Ch’i.”

(WCP, p. 60) “Georges Braque was reported to have said: “There is only one thing in art that is worthwhile. It is that which cannot be explained.’”

(WCP, p. 62) “The Ch’i in the First Cannon of painting is thus the Breath or Vital Force of Spirit of Tao, and it is also the Yin and Yang as the dual forces of Tao…In painting, ch’i is both the creative resources of the painter and the essential vitality – spiritual, divine, and creative – that can be transmitted to a painting and perceived by the spectator.”

(WCP, p. 63) “’Ch’i yun may be expressed by ink, by brushwork, by an idea, or by absence of idea…It is something beyond he feeling of the brush and the effect of ink, because it is the moving power of Heaven, which is suddenly disclosed. But only those who are quiet can understand it.’”

(WCP, p. 81) “Elsewhere the work (Tao Te Ching) mentions that a man possessed of Tao not only will live long but will be exempt from danger and decay. Thus, Tao become the source and secret of immortality.”

(WCP, p. 81-82) “The Alchemists were deeply concerned with physical and mental discipline. They evolved a comprehensive regimen, regulating diet and prescribing exercises and proper breathing, that on the whole was sensible and salutary.”

(WCP, p. 82) “It is notable that, whenever painters and critics wrote of the importance of health and a calm min, of breath control, meditation, and practices conducive to good painting, they cited methods similar to those found in Taoist alchemical works. The insistence on clarifying thought and on stilling the heart before wielding the brush was a discipline also practiced by the philosophical among the alchemists.”

(WCP, p. 88) “Zen Buddhism…encouraged what might be described as impressionistic works in which ink tones and the vitality of brushwork were the most important factors, and color was on the whole unnecessary.”

(WCP, p. 98) “Chen is the term used frequently in Taoist and Buddhist works in discussing the spiritual, the pure, the divine, that which is held to be real. As it is yet another way of describing harmony with the laws of Tao, it stands as a key term of Chinese thought and painting. Tzu jan is an equally important Taoist term. The two are complementary and in many respects interchangeable, for what is true to nature is natural and spontaneous. And to achieve trueness and naturalness is, in effect, to be in harmony with Tao: what the Taoists describe as being one with Tao.”

(WCP, p. 107) “The idea of the constant and unceasing interaction of the Yin and the Yang, of Tao in operation, is equivalent to Ch’i yun (the circulation of the Vital Force).”

(WCP, p. 107) “And the essential element of movement, illustrating the processes of transformation I nature, is further evident in the fact that both painter and spectator move through the painting; the painter draws and paints and the spectator views the results from many points, never from a single position or at one moment of time.”

(WCP, p. 108) “Painters also speak of sequence and rhythm in composition, using such terms as k’ai ho (ch. Open-together) and ch’i fu (ch. rise-fall), which refer to skill in arrangement, placing, connecting, and balancing. The terms are also descriptive of movement, of the Yin and Yang, the exhalation and inhalation of the Ch’i. They imply whole cycles change, of growth and decay, of the eternal rhythm of nature.”

(WCP, p. 109) “As space is filled with Ch’i, the Spirit or Vital Force, it also has its Yang aspect. It is this concept that makes the handling of space the most original contribution of Chinese painting and the most exhilarating aspect of the works themselves.”

(WCP, p. 110) “The stillness associated with emptiness of space and Tao also is silence, which adds to the mystery of Tao and stresses the reserve and meditative habits necessary for the painter to be receptive and able to express any aspect of Tao. Silence and emptiness of space possess vast powers of suggestion, stimulating the imagination and sharpening perception. And only through exercise of these highest faculties can Tao be apprehended and expressed.”

(WCP, p.112) “Acceptance of what seems natural and inevitable is evident in the observant, reflective, and respectful approach of the masters. It may also be seen in the representation of human beings in paintings, meditative and reverent as they move along a mountain path or stop to gaze at the scene around them, seeming to listen to the rhythm and harmony of life, stilling themselves in order to be in tune with it.”

(WCP, p. 113) “Li (ch. principle) has the meaning of ‘reason’ and ‘law’… The philosopher Chu Hsi raised the term li to a position of such prominence that painters declared it the most important thing in painting… Numerous other painters and critics in the Sung and later periods made similar statements. To the li, as inner law and Essence, was of deeper import than appearance and outer form. Yet the two aspects were mutually dependent. A recent essay on embryology offers a remarkably appropriate comment here: ‘Form is both deeply material and highly spiritual. It cannot exist without a material support; it cannot be properly expressed without invoking some supra-material principle.’”

(WCP, p. 113-114) “Painting, guided by the heart-mind through the means of skillful handling of brush and ink, should thus exhibit thought and reflection, sensibility and intuition. And it is the proper balance of these factors than can produce the harmonious results worthy of being described as expressions of harmony of Heaven and Earth.’”

(WCP, p.114) “In painting, harmony of all the elements and ideas in a composition produces general harmony, and by ‘spiritual influence’ it can inspire and sustain the desire and effort to achieve it. Thus painting may present the felicitous results of perfect rhythm and harmony, offering clues to the secret of life itself for those able to discern them.”

(WCP, p. 117) “Calligraphy at its finest and most expressive is indeed the dance of the brush and ink at its highest point of achievement, when movement, vitality, rhythm, and harmony are uppermost and the intellectual content of the written characters purposely is abandoned in the swift rendering of them by the perfectly disciplined and therefore completely free brush.”

(WCP, p. 117-118) “The nature of the soft brush and ink does not permit correcting, changing, or retracing a stroke without marring the effect of the whole picture. The hand has to be sure, and coordination of ‘heart and hand’ is essential. As expressed in the Manual, ‘each brush stroke should be a living idea.’ Brushwork is thus the direct expression of the mind in action. Its function is to make visible the invisible. The power to do this is often referred to as pi li (ch. brush strength), a term embracing skill and dexterity and, of equal if not greater importance, the mental and spiritual motivation. It is noteworthy that, in explaining the brushstrokes for modeling, the Manual opens that section with the statement: ‘He who is learning to paint must first learn to still his heart, thus to clarify his understanding and increase his wisdom.’ And painters pointed out that, when painting is guided by the heart (ch. hsin, the heart-mind), the principle of the circulation of Heaven and Earth (Tao) is revealed and the Tao of painting is made manifest.”

(WCP, p. 118) “’Stilling the heart’ expresses beautifully the quietness necessary for creative results, an inner quietness related to the silence of Tao and its processes… The practice of meditation and of exercises in deep and controlled breathing have as their end the stilling of the heart… In stilling the heart an individual can become one with the elements of nature, the great creative forces of Tao. This becoming one is the rue meaning of wholeness.”

(WCP, p.119) “Becoming one with the universe is the literal connotation of the character ch’an of Zen (kanji, ed.) (i.e., Ch’an).”

(WCP, p.119) “Identity with the object depicted might be explained in another way; the painter has to experience the rhythm of life to be able to express it in his work by means of the rhythm of the brush.”

(KAZA, p. 25) "Another central Taoist notion is Wu-Wei, which signifies Non-Doing or Without Doing...The (flower) bud opens spontaneously without struggle; the overripe melon bursts open without perceptible volition. That is how man should act too, spontaneously and without self-consciousness."

(KAZA, p. 26) "Wu-Wei signifies pure action, an extremely active stillness, and a spontaneity in activity which is not hampered by busy restlessness, action for action's sake, or the frantic desires of our little ego. Wu-Wei means action in non-action, spontaneously doing exactly the right thing at exactly the right moment."

(KAZA, p. 26) "Through Ki we can achieve a harmonious balance between Yin and Yang within ourselves. This process of harmonization is fundamental to any self-knowledge and self-realization...When we control our breathing, we attain a state of active stillness - inwardly and outwardly, mentally and physically - which corresponds to the Wu-Wei and balances the interplay of the passive Yin and the active Yang forces that determine our being."

(KAZA, p. 26) "If a person continues unswervingly on this path, he will gradually learn to integrate his life into the all-embracing rhythm of the cosmos."

(KAZA, p. 27) "All purely philosophical endeavors are restricted to an essentially intellectual level and fail to attain the profundity of spiritual and material penetration which can be achieved by way of meditative breathing. Through meditation and breath control we can reach direct awareness of our union with nature and with the entire universe."

(KAZA, p. 27) "Meditation in this sense does not only mean the traditional sitting in a special posture. Meditation can be practiced in any situation, and it is of no account whatsoever whether the body is at rest or active."

(KAZA, p. 27) "An ancient maxim of Chinese Universalism says that stillness leads to Enlightenment. Stillness is attained by meditative breathing, but does not necessarily involve sitting quietly. Instead it entails a silence which comes from our innermost being, bringing forth and inspiring all our actions, even those which seem to be most insignificant."

(KAZA, p. 28) "Anyone who regulates and concentrates his breathing, the `Breath of Life' or cosmic energy, can achieve a balancing of soul and mind, a harmonization of Yin and Yang."

(KAZA, p. 30) "Without correct posture, correct and natural breathing is impossible. Without correct breathing, in turn, meditation is impossible, and often becomes physical and mental torment."

(KAZA, p. 32) "In addition, the breath has to find its own rhythm, and after just a few days that is no longer any problem. Once the archer has established this state of stillness within himself, he will - in the silence of his heart - be able to sense and hear the Tao within himself and without, above and below. When he picks up his bow, he must and will derive all his movements from this fundamental spiritual attitude - effortlessly and without excessive participation of the will, correctly but without calculation."

(KAZA, p. 33) "The archer shoots without willing to shoot because that happens to be the activity he is engaged in. He could just as well be doing something else in the same spirit."

(KAZA, p. 34) "Hara is the seat and center of all spiritual energies, which are concentrated in the Tanden. Tanden breathing is therefore ultimately `spiritual breathing'.

(KAZA, p. 38) "During all the movement involved (in archery), the breathing continues to be calm, deep, and even, at one with the rhythm pulsating through the universe."

(KAZA, p. 39) "What really matters during inhalation, breath retention, exhalation, and renewed retention is to become aware of our individual rhythm, understanding and concretely experiencing its interaction with the cosmic rhythm so that they will ultimately achieve alignment and become one. Kyudo also demands of the archer that all his movements - up to release of the arrow and the moment when he steps back from the shooting line - be harmonized with the unified individual and cosmic rhythm.."

(KAZA, p. 39) "Anyone who breathes correctly and has achieved the decisive re-fusion of those two poles which originally constituted a unity and were only rent asunder by our self-centeredness and the illusion of possession of separate I, cannot help but attain perfect execution of all the movements required by the technique of archery. He will integrate these movements into the `Great Harmony', the `Great Breath'. Once the archer has acquired the correct technique through persistent practice and learned to breathe in the right way so that he can let technique and breath look after themselves - allowing them to arise out of his innermost being and to manifest as they wish, all his actions will start in the `Great Harmony', the Tao, and the archer has attained his goal."

(KAZA, p. 41) "The Tao, or Way of the Universe, has its correspondence in the Tao as the Way of Man. The Way of Man must harmonize as completely as possible with the Way of the Cosmos. If man, therefore, deviates in his thoughts and actions from the Way of the Universe to which he is subordinate, he will inevitable come into conflict with himself and the surrounding world...it becomes understandable that the term `Way' was specifically adopted by a variety of Arts and Sciences since the Arts include everything that contributes to the perfection of human nature and furthers man's aspiration to complete self-realization."